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Romaic, or, as it is often called, Moprern GREEK, is the language spoken by the modern Greeks. It may with propriety be said to bear the same relation to the Greek, that is, the lan- guage of the ancient Greeks, that the Italian bears to the Latin. It is called ἡ “Pamatixy, (sometimes
“Pouaixn,) by the mass of the people; and ἡ
ἁπλῆ, anhoshanuixn, Τραικική, καϑομιλουμένη, κοινή, νέα, νεωτέρα, ὁμιλουμένη, σημερινή, τωρινή, and yvdaia, by the educated. By some it is called Atododwerxy, olodoric.*
* It is believed that this term was first used by Ατηλνα- 5105 CuRISTOPOULOsS, who, in consequence of his superficial acquaintance with the Greek language, imagined that the Romaic (of which, by the way, he was a perfect master) was little else than a slight modification of the Holic and Doric dialects. With equal propriety he might have called it Turko-Ionic, or Greco-Latin. The fact is, the Romaic is the legitimate offspring of the Byzantine Greek, which is the last stage of the Common Attic. .
= EY.
iv PREFACE.
With respect to the term “Payaiixn, Romaic, it should be remembered, that long before the over- throw of the Graeco-Roman. empire, the Greeks began to call themselves “Ρωμαῖοι, Romans ; not because, as some have hastily supposed, they considered themselves unworthy of their glorious ancestors, but because there was more glory at- tached to the name of their masters, the Romans.* The revolution of 1821 has restored the ancient appellation, “EAAnves: but, as it is used chiefly by the inhabitants of Bavarian Greece, who per- haps do not constitute more than one fourth of the Greek nation, it may safely be said that the mass of the people still call themselves “Ῥωμαῖοι, and their language, Papaitxy.
The Romaic,.as such, cannot be traced farther back than the time of THEoporus ProcHopro-
* It may be remarked here, that the term Ἕλληνες was, a few years ago, considered equivalent to εἰδωλολάτραι, idolaters. Indeed, at this very day, many a devout monk thinks it a horrible appellation, not fit for a Christian nation.
As to the Greeks of Phanari (Φανάρι), they styled them- selves ‘‘ τὸ ἔνδοξον γένος τῶν Ῥωμαίων, the illustrious nation of the Romans,” and looked upon the appellation Ἕλληνες or Toaxoi with utter abhorrence and contempt.
It may be remarked, further, that the Arabs of the pres- ent day call the modern Greeks “Ῥούμ, that is, Romans, and the ancient inhabitants of Greece, ‘Jovrvay or Γιουνάν, that is, Tonians. The term “Povu gave rise to ἹῬούμελη, Roumele or Romelia, that is, the country of the Romans, which is usually applied to continental Greece, Macedonia, and Thrace.
PREFACE. Υ
promus, who flourished about the middle of the twelfth century (say, A. D. 1150), and is the first Romaic author of whom we have any definite ac- counts. His two Romaic poems consist of about 946 iambic verses of seven.and_a half feet (tech- nically, iambic tetrameters catalectic), and are ad- dressed to the emperor Manuel Comnenus. The prologues and epilogues are in barbarous Greek, that is, in the Greek commonly used by the learned of that period; which period, according
to some, is the darkest in the history of Greek
literature.* It may be stated further, that the
story of ᾿“΄πολλωνίου tov ἐν Τύρῳ, Apollonius of Tyre, was translated from the Latin romance “ Apollonius Tyrius,” the supposed prototype of “ Pericles Prince of Tyre,” about the year A. D. 1480.
With respect to Romaic Grammars, most of those. that are written by native Greeks, instead
of describing the language as it is spoken by the.
mass of the people, and written by men of edu- cation and sense, are most commonly little more
* These poems of Procnopropromus have been edited,
commented upon, and treated with affected contempt, by
the learned Coray. The editor seems to be out of patience with his author because he did not use better Romaic, The fact is, Cornay, when he undertook the edition of these poems, was too old, or rather too Parisianized to appreciate the rude humor of the ‘‘ Poor Forenunner.”’
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vi PREFACE.
than an exposition of some favorite philological whim.* |
Those composed by foreigners, are usually free from systematic pedantries ; but, with a few hon- orable exceptions, they abound with errors; and, as most of the authors of these Grammars have the misfortune to be tolerable smatterers in Greek, they are by no means free from needless and con- fusing comparisons between the language of the modern Greeks and that of their supposed ances- tors ; so that the reader, after he has been through half a dozen of them or so, knows little more about the Romaic, than that the language of Ber- toldo and Bertoldino differs somewhat from that of Thucydides. Not unfrequently, a rule is based upon a misprint.**
* Thus, in the skeleton of a Grammar lately printed and published at Syra, and pompously entitled ‘‘ Γραμματικὴ τῆς ἀρχαίας καὶ τῆς σημερινῆς γλώσσης, A Grammar of the ancient and modern Greek,’”? among other whimsical observations we meet with the following ; ‘‘ What the ancient expressed by λούσομαι, the modern Greek (6 σημερινὸς Ἕλλην) expresses by ϑέλω λουσϑῆν." Now if by ‘‘ the modern Greek ”’ the author means himself and a few otlier Coraists, the state- ment is partially true ; but nothing can be more false, if it is intended to include the mass of the nation.
** For example, a learned author, who is by no means unacquainted with the Romaic, gravely informs his readers, that the modern Greek has augmentative nouns ‘in -ὠνη, as ποϑώνη, a great desire, from πόϑος ; the origin of which mis- take is the ‘‘erratum” ποϑῶναι for ποϑῶ vai, occurring in a poem attributed to Regas.
PREFACE. Vil
It may be remarked here, that Coray, though he has never written a Grammar, has made more grammatical. observations, than most modern Greeks; unfortunately, however, his fort lay not in accurate grammatical knowledge.
The Grammar which is now offered to the Hellenists of the United States, professes to give a full account of the Romaic of the present day. A great number of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and epistles, have been examined with reference to it. Comparisons between the Greek and Ro- maic have, in general, been avoided, simply be- cause to the Hellenist they would be of little or no use, and as to him who is not acquainted with the Greek, they would not only be entirely use- less, but also highly perplexing. An elementary book is not the proper place for comparisons of this kind.
CAMBRIDGE, May 15, 1842.
yes
τ CONTENTS.
reek yt. “LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. ? : (PAGE PAGE The Alphabet , » 1 | Metathesis 11 Diphthongs ‘ 2 | Additions and Omissions, of Letters 12 Pronunciation 2 Prosthesis and Apheresis,. Ὁ 12 Accents and Breathings 5 Epenthesis and Syncope 12 Enclitics, and Proclitics 7 Paragoge and Apocope «13 Punctuation _ 9 | Crasis and Elision var 13, Syllabication . 9 | Commutation of Letters | eit ir Synizesis . ᾿ 11 ἱ PART II. INFLECTION OF WORDS. Parts of Speech ° 17| | Reciprocal ° . 341 Noun’ . . 17 | * Possessive . . 41 First Declension ° - 18 Interrogative ‘ . 42 Second Declension . 22 Indefinite . ‘ 42 Third Declension - 24 Demonstrative . οὐ 43 Indeclinable Nouns . 29 ~ Relative ~ . ὸ 3.4 Adjectives . . 29 Pronominal Adjectives . 7.44 Adjectives in os "μὰ ous 30. | Verb ‘ : A 45 Adjectives in ms. -» $1) Augment. -. ol Adjectives in us $1 | Formation of the Tenses ὁ 58 Adjectives and Participes in wy, Present . ow 53 as, εἰς $2 Imperfect . 54 Comparison of Adjectives. » 84) Aorist and Perfect Passive Anomalous Comparison 35 Participle ‘ May OD Numerals. ; . 36| Future , ᾿ 57 Cardinal Numbers ; 36 | Perfect and Pluperfect «a9 Ordinal Numbers . - ΨΥ Conditional Tenses . 60 Multiplicatives 57 | Verbs ina . : 62 Article Η é . 388 Irregular Verbs .. . 65 Pronoun ὸ . 88 | Adverbs ° ἢ Tee 9 Personal . i . 88 Derivation of Words 74 Reflexive . . 40 | Composition of Words ere MQ
CONTENTS.
Interrogative and Relative
ApprTions TO THE VocABULARY
PART III. SYNTAX. Subject and Predicate . 81 | Vocative . Subject . ‘ « - 81,| Voices ἃ Predicate A 5 85. *~Attve™ “ . Substantive . ᾿Ξ - 86 Passive . Adjective - . 88 Deponents . Comparatives ° . 89 | Tenses ° Numerals ‘ . 89 | Moods . Ν Article : . - 90 Indicative . Pronoun . ° . 941 Subjunctive . Personal . . ._ 94 Reflexive . . 97 clauses Reciprocal . + ,97᾿ Conditional Propositions Possessive ΒΕ . 97 Expression of a Wish Interrogative : ὁ 98 Prohibitions Indefinite - προ: 98 Imperative ° Demonstrative ὁ .. 99 Αἀνειῦ. . . Relative : Ε 99 | Preposition ὃ Object . . ὃ . ΙΟ1᾽ Conjunction . Genitive . : 102 | Interjection . Accusative . - 106 PART IV. VERSIFICATION. Feet ‘ . ὃ 184 | Iambic Verse ° Trochaic Verse ° . 184 CHRESTOMATHY. Miscellaneous Extracts . 139 | Klephtic and other eo) Coray : ὦ . 144 Miliones . Koumas . : . 146 Gyphtakes . Kokkinakes . ° 148 Pliaskas . Chourmouzes - 149 Death and Souls “ C@konomos . : - 154 Olympus and Kisabhos Proverbs . 5 156 Constantine and Arete Christopoulos ἃ . 157) Salomos . Soutsos . . Ξ- 163 Perdicares © - ἃ . 165| Νναπ" . VOCABULARY . ᾿ . .
\ .
155
167 167 168 169 169 170 170 172
175
191 262
ROMAIC GRAMMAR.
LETTERS AND 8} THE ALPHABET.
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The Romaic alphabet consists of the following twenty- -four letters:
Figure:
a
86
¢ final
Representative. A a ΒΗ bh ΟἿ gh DH adh E ὃ Zi ἠθνὰ E δ ΤῈ “ἢ i i K k L l M m NV n xX x oO 0 ἄτι τς ὦ R r S' 8 T t . 3. y PH ph CH.) eh PS ps O 0.
Name. | |
~ “Alga
Βήητα Τάμμα Ζ4έλτα Ἂ ψιλόν Ζῆτα τὰ Onta "lata Kenna “ἀἄμβδα My
No
at
Ὃ μικρόν Il
“Po Σίγμα Ταῦ
Ὗ ψιλόν Di
Xt
Pi
"2 μέγα
2 "LETTERS AND SYLLABLES.” [δ 2-4.
2: The letters are divided into vowels and δοη- sonants. The vowels are seven; @, ξ, - l, O, ¥, sg The consonants,‘are seventeen ; “2B, iy, ὃ, ©, B,-2, a,
BL, ¥ = π᾿ Q; 9, τ, Ps 2: yw.
3. The consonants £ and y respectively repre- sent xo and zo. Thus ξένος, κόραξ, ψαχνός, γύψ, are pronounced XGEVOS, KOQAXS, πσαχνός, γύπς.
4. The consonants,», ρ, s, and w are the only ones that can stand at the end of a genuine Romaic word.
DIPHTHONGS.
§ 2. ‘There are eleven diphthongs; at, av, εἰ, EV, OL, OV, VL, NV, ᾳ, ἢ, @
The second letter in the last three is written under the first, and is, for that reason, called tofa subscript.
PRONUNCIATION.
§ 3. The Romaic has five vowel-sounds, repre- sented by a, ¢, 4, 0, and ev, and twenty-one conso- nant-sounds, represented by f, 7, ὃ, % ὃ, x, A, μι,
VY, 7, Q, ὅσ, τ, Ps Z-
§ 4. 1. Of the five vowel- sounds, only two, namely, ¢ and 0, cannot*be exactly expressed in English letters.
a is pronounced like a in father. After the sound 1 (ι, εἰ, ἡ, 7, 01, u,v), like a in fat, pat, but not so sharp: perhaps a in peculiarity would express it better.
a, like a.
αι, like ε.
av, <v, ἥν, before a vowel, or before β, 7, δ, 1, fy », Qy are pro- nounced like αβ, <3, 78, respectively ; in all other cases, like ἀφ, ED, 79- In other words, v in these three diphthongs ‘has
᾿ 47 ες PRONUNCIATION. ὦ 8
the ince of 8,or pg. Ἐν δ. εὐοῖ, sade, αὐλός, ἢ ψεῦδος," ηὗρα, are pronounced ἐβοῖ, ἀβγόν, ἀβλός, ψέβδος, ἦβρα : αὐτός, εὐχή, ηὔχετο, are pronounced ἀφτός, ἐφχή, ἤφχετο.
z, a little longer than the first 6. in veneration. Further, ain mate, without the vanishing sound, nee it almost exactly.
τ ge, like v.
gu, 5886 av.
ῃ and ῃ, like ε-
Hv, SCE αὖ.
t, like ¢ in machine, or ee in i faci:
o, a little-longer than ὁ in confuse. The English long 0, as in note, cone, without the vanishing sound, expresses it very nearly.
ot, like «.
ov, like 00 in moon, pool.
v and w, like «.
w and ῳ, like o.
Nore 1. The multiplicity of the representatives of nearly all the vowel- sounds is a source of confusion in the oftthography of some Romaic words of obscure or foreign origin. The most natural way to settle the orthography of such words is to spell their root in the simplest manner as it is pronounced. ; that is, to use only a, ¢, 4, 0, and ov.
Nore 2. It is well known that nearly all the English long vowels, so called» are composed of two distinct elements; in other words, they are diphthongs. For the gratification of those who may wish to know how the Greeks express them in Romaic letters, we give the following table.
a is sounded nearly like ἐ ti, ba, as fate, gtir: fare, Piag.
6 ία, ία, κ΄ there, diae: mere, wing.
I ax “ ai, din, “ spite, σπάϊπ : fire, φάϊαρ. δ ne - ὅσυ, oa, §* mote, voour: store, στόαρ. a a - sod, soda, “ mute, piotr? pure, «πιούαρ.
It will be observed that i as in fire, and τὶ as in pure, are each composed of three distinct elements.
2. Of the twenty-one consonant-sounds only three, namely β, γ, and y, cannot be expressed in English letters,
6 is weaker than v, but stronger than #. In this book, £, y, ὃ are respectively represented by bh, gh, dh.
y, before the sounds Ε and J, is stronger than y in yes, yoke; that is, it is a strong palatal. In all other cases it is guttural. Compare x, x. om
Before x, χ.οὺ another y, it is sounded like ng in hang ; in which case, x and the» second 7 have the sound of g in
4 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. [§ 4.
give; as,” ἀνάγκη, αἰ-πάηρ-ρε, σάλπιγξ (that is, σάλπεγε),
- sal-pings, σύγχυσις, sy ‘ng-chy-sis, ἀγγεῖον, ang-gih-on.
yu, 868 7, x. ©
ὃ, like th in this, them, rather.
ti likez τ »
8, like thin thin, theme, aoe.
x, like k. Before Ε and I it is palatal; in all other cases it is rather guttural.
After y, it has the sound of g in give, get. For examples, see γ.
i, like ἡ * Before 1, it is generally sounded like li in William, or like the Italian gl: compare » under. the same circum- stances.
p, like m.
pm, 888 7.
HY, 866 y. |
y, like n. Before J, it is generally sounded like the first x in opinion, or like the Italian gn.
The final» of the proclitics ἄν, δέν, ἐν, σύν, τόν, τήν, and of some other words, before a word beginning with x, or § (that is xo), is pronounced like 7 under the same circum- stances; aS, τὸν xaigor, τογκαιρόν, tong-geh-ron, δὲν ξέρω, δεγξέρω, dheng-gsth-ro. Before x, or w (that is πο), the ν of these words is. sounded like uw: as, τὸν πιχρόν, τομπικρόν, tom-bih-krén, τὴν ψυχήν, τημψυχήν, teem-bsyh-cheén; see a and ψ.
vt, SEC τ.
&, like z in az.
π, like p. After μ, it has the sound of b; as, ὀμπροστά, om- brostah. See also ν.
0, like r.
o, like s in soft. Before 8, y, δ, μ, v, and g, in the same or in the next word, it has the sound of ¢: as, ἔσβυσε, ἔζβυσε, éh- zbhyh-seh, ᾿Ισραήλ, ᾿Ιζραήλ, Iz-rah-eél ; τοὺς γέρους, τουζγέρους, tooz-ghéh-roos.
τ, like ¢ in ¢ell. After », it is sounded like d; as, ἐντροπή, en-dro-pé : so also after the proclitics ἄν, δέν, ἐν, σύν, τόν, THY: av τρέχω, an-dréh-cho.
to (formerly 7¢), before Ε or 1, like ch in check, cheap ; ; as, ἔτσι, éh-chih ; in all other cases, like ¢s or tz; as ἐτσάκισαν, eh- tzithekih-san. But TOL before a, 0, Or ov, in case of synizesis, is pronounced like ch in chapter, choke, choose ; as, tovaxaty- ρα, chah-kah-té-rah, “When preceded by y, it has ‘the sound of 7; as, τὸν τσελεπῆ, τοντσελεπῆ, ton-jeh-leh-pé.
§ 5.] ACCENTS AND BREATHINGS. 5
it
φ, like f or ph.
% considerably stronger than κι ‘the German ch, or “the Spanish J, expresses it exactly.
Further, before £ or J, it is palatal; in all oped cases. it is
rather guttural,
y, like ps in perhaps. After μ, it has the sound of bs, inas- “much as it represents πα: a8, ἔμψυχος, ém-bsyh-chos.
3. When a consonant is doubled, only the first one is pronounced ; as, σφάλλω, φυλάττω, pro- nounced σφάλω, φυλάτω.
Examples for Practice.
᾿Σοὺ, φίλε μουσικέ, *Eh-syh, phth-leh moo-sih-kéh, Φωναχλᾶ μου βαϑρακέ, Pho-nah-klah-moo . bhah-thrah-kéh, Vego πίνοντας, γλυκά Neh-r6 pth-non-das, ghlyh-kéh | Κελαϊδεῖς τὸ μπάκρκώ. Keh-lah-ih-dhis_ to-mbah-kah-kih. Τῆς αὐγῆς δροσάτο « ἀέρι, Tiss-abh-ghis dhro-sah-to ah-éh-rih, Av φυσᾷς τώρα ἐσὺ πλιό Dhen-phyh-sds té-rah eh-sy'h plih-o ἐξ τῶν. ψευδόπιστων τὸ ἀ- Stom-bsebh-dhé-pih-ston to-ah- coe stéh-rih.
‘0° Ἔρωτας μὲ λέγει O-FE’h-ro-tas meh-léh-ghih
᾽Σ τὰ πάϑη μου δὲν φταίγει" Stah-pih-the-moo dhen-phtéh-gih ; Kat δείχνει καὶ προβάλλει Keh-dhih-chnih keh-pro-bhdl-lih Πῶς τίποτε δὲν σφάλλει. Bee poten dhen-sphil-lih.
Οἱ λαγοὶ πολεμοῦντες μὲ τοὺς ἀετοὺς ἐπαρακάλουν εἰς συμμαχίαν τὰς ἀλώπεκας.
Th-lah-ghih po-leh-mo6n-des " meh-toos-ah-eh-to6s eh-pah-rah- kih-loon issym-mah-chih-an tas-ah-l6-peh-kas,
ACCENTS AND BREATHINGS.
§ 5. 1. There are three accents, the acute(’), the grave 2 ), and the circumflex (7).
The acute can stand on one of the last three syllables; the circumflex only on the last two; and the grave only on the last.
With respect to pronunciation, there is no differ-
ence between these three marks. 1*
6 LETTERS AND ὧν Ἢ [$$ 6, 7.
Nore 1. Some of the polysyllabic forms of the present and imperfect passive sometimes take the accent cn the fourth syllable, in which case a secondary
accent is placed on the penult ; as, κάϑουμέστε, ἐκάϑουμάσεαν, from κάϑορια:-
But such forms as κόσιασε, ἐβράδειασε, from κοσιάζω, βραδειάζω, are no ex- ceptions to the general rule, since the antepenult is, by synizesis, contracted with the penult into one syllable.
2. Every word, except εἴς, os, and the articles ὃ, ἡ, ot, ai, 9, has one of the accents.
With regard to the place of the accent in any particular word, it must be learned by observation and practice. ;
For the accent of the oblique cases of nouns, and for that of the verbal forms, see the paradigms.
Nore 2. In Romaic words of modern date, the acute should be used, unless it would violate some Greek rule. Thus, instead of μαροῦλι, καλοκαῖρι, ταῖς, «ριανταφυλλιαῖς, Write μαρούλι, καλοκαίρι, ταῖς, «ριανταφυλλιαίς. ;
§ 6. When a word, which has the acute on the last syllable, stands before other words belonging to the same clause or expression, this acute becomes grave. Εἰ g.
καλὸς ἄνϑρωπος, NOt καλός ἄνϑρωπος.
§ 7. 1. Every word, beginning with a vowel, has either the rough breathing (ἢ), or the smooth breathing (° ), over that vowel.
With respect to pronunciation, these two marks have no power whatever. E. g. δρίζω, ἱέραξ, oh-rth-zo, th-éh-raz, axovw, ἔχω, ah-kod-0, éh-cho. What words take the rough, and what the smooth breathing,
must be learned by observation. It is only remarked here, that derivative words take the breathing of their primitives.
2. The rough breathing is placed also over @ at the beginning of a word. E. g. | ῥήτωρ, ῥεῦμα, ré-tor, rébh-mah.
ae
§ 8-10.] ACCENTS AND BREATHINGS. 7 1
When-¢ is doubled in the middle of a word, the first one takes the smooth, and the second, the rough breathing. Εἰ g.
ἐπίῤῥημα, eh-pih-re-ma. 7
§ 8. I. The accent, as also the breathing, is placed over the second vowel of the diphthong accented. ἘΣ g.
yuvaines, οἴκοι, τούτου, κακαὶς.
2. But in the diphthongs @, ῃ9 ᾧ, these marks are necessarily placed over the first letters. E. 8.
ἄδω, ἡ, ἐνῷ.
9. When a word is written in capitals, its breath-
ing and accent are commonly omitted; as, 44.22, IPPA®GH, ΕΝ.
ENCLITICS AND PROCLITICS.
§ 9. An enclitic is a word which is ic wee.
-- πο Το
nouns μοῦ, Me, μᾶς, σοῦ, σέ, σᾶς, Ἂς all the cases of tds.
§ 10. 1. If the word before the enclitic has the acute on the antepenult, or the circumflex on the penult, the accent of the encliticis dropped, and the acute is placed on the last syllable of the preceding word.
With respect to pronunciation, in the first case, the primary stress is on the antepenult of the at- tracting word, and the secondary on its last sylla- ble; in the second case, the acute on the last: sylla- ble of the attracting word has no power whatever. E. g.
δέσετέ μας pron. δέσετέμας, dhéh-seh-téh-mas δοῦλός cag “ δούλοσσας, dhod-lossas. WY.
8 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. ἐ ἘΠ 88}.
2. When the word before the enclitic has the accent on the last syllable, or the acute on the penult, the accent of the enclitic is simply dropped ; and if the accent on the last syllable of that word be the acute, it remains so, contrary to Mte general rule (δ 6). E..g. |
γυναικός Gov pron. γυναικόσσου, Νὰ Kids εἰπέτε TOU “ εἰπέτετου, th-péh-teh-too.
3. When two enclitics succeed each other, the last one drops its accent, and the one preceding it takes the acute. In this case the primary accent is that of the attracting word. E. g.
δώσετέ τούτο Ῥτοη. degetétovto. ῥῆξέ μού τον ““ ῥηήξεμούτον δεῖρέ μού tove “ dsigeuovtore.
δ 11. A proeliiic is a word which is pronounced as if it were an integral part of the word before which it stands... ~~~
The principal proclitics are the articles, the pre- positions, the auzihary Bd, the conjunctions ay, καὶ, and νά, and the personal pronouns ‘mentioned above (δ 9), except the genitive τῶν. E. g.
ὃ ἄνϑρωπος pron. δάνϑρωπος
ἀπὸ μένα “ ἀπομένα to γράψωμεν “ Οϑαγράψωμεν καὶ τοῦτος “ 5;᾿«καιτοῦτος μᾶς εἴπετε “ μασεΐπετε σᾶς τὸ ἔδωχα “ οσαστοέδωχα.
Nore. The union of the preposition εἰς, and of the articles σόν, σήν, with the word to which they belong, has been the source of a considerable number of curious words. Thus, the Turks have made Σσαριτόλ, Constantinople, and Zravné or Σσανκιό, Cos, from the expressions ᾽Σ σὴν Πόλη, to the City, and "> σὴν Ka, to Cos.
The Greeks, imagining that the» of the article belonged to. the following word, have made yeernves, Naive, Nia, Nevive, Νύδρα, νῶμος, from τὸν πρεμινόν, τὴν Αἶνον, τὴν “lov, σὴν Tivev, τὴν “Ὕδραν, σὸν ὦμον. On the other hand, sup- , posing that the » belonged to the article, they have formed ᾿Αξιά, "Eraxros, . from σὴν Νάξον, σὸν Ναύσακτον. "
δῷ 12-14.] _ ΒΥΓΓΠΑΒΙΟΑΤΊΟΝ. 9
The Italians have made Stalanini, and Negroponte, from ᾽Σ σὴ Λήμνω or *2 τὴν Λῆμνον, and ᾽ἢΣ τὴν "Eyeirw οΥ ᾽Σ τὴν Eigirey, imagining, at the same time, that the latter word was of Italian origin (negro, ponte).
PUNCTUATION.
8. 12. The Romaic makes use of the following marks of punctuation :
Comma, ΄. 4 : . DIE Colon and Semicolon, ° ; 2. ie Period, ‘ τοῦ τὰς δὰ Interrogation,
Apostrophe, .
Coronis, . ;
Dizresis, ; ; ' ; we Parenthesis, . : , , >» ah) | Admiration, . ὃ : ; ‘ ΤΊ
» ΝιΝ .}
υ “MMe x
The mark of diwresis is placed over ὁ or v only when the _ preceding syllable ends -in a, ε, oro: Thus xlavuo has ware / syllables, κλά-ὕ-μα, but χλαῦμα is'a dissyllable, κλαῦ-μα. 4
SYLLABICATION.
§ 13. There are as many syllables in a Romaic word as there are vowel-sounds In it.
§ 14. 1. Any. single consonant may commence a Romaic word.
2. The following combinations of consonants also may commence a word:
By, βδ, Bi, Bo: βγαίνω, βλέπω, βρέχω:
γδ, γκ, γλ, γν, ye: γδύνω, γκαρίξει, γλυκός, γνωρίζω, γράφω: du, ὃν, dg: δρόσος:
ὅλ, Br, Fo: ϑλίβω, ϑνήσχω, ϑρέφω:
κλ, χμ, ms xo, xt: κλειδί, κγοῦτον, κράζω, χτίζω:
μν, UT: μνημονεύω, μπαρούτε: Ὁ
YT, VIG: ντουλάπι, VTOOUL :
Th, πν, πρ, Nt: πλάτος, πνεῦμα, πρός, NIV :
of, oy, σϑ, ox, oxh, σμ, σπλ, στ, στὰ, στρ, op, ox: σβύνω,
10 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. | [8 15.
σγαρδί, σκάπτω, σκληρός, νυλήδῳ, σταυρύς, στρέφω, σφἄζω, σχίζω :
τζ, τὰ, Tu, TQ, To: τζέπη, τμῆμα, τρόπος, τσακίζω :
pt, px, φν, φρ, PT: φϑάνω, φκιάνω, φράζω, φτιάνω :
XS, Zh, χν, 19, LE? χλωρός, χνούδι, χρῶμα, χτένι.
3. The above combinations, except fy, yx, μπ, vt, ντσ, com- mence also a syllable. Also, yu, dy, τν, χμ.
4. Any three consonants may commence ἃ syl- lable, provided the combination of the first with the second, and that of the second with the third, may each begin a syllable; as ato, yu.
§ 15. Romaic words are divided into syllables in the following manner.
1. A single consonant standing between two vowels, or a combination of consonants which can commence a syllable (§ 14. 3, 4), is placed at the beginning of the syllable. E. g.
τι-μᾶ-τε, γρά-φου-σι, ταῦ-ρος, εἴ-πα-σιν ἔ-γρα-ψες, ἄ-πι-στος, ἐ-χϑρός, ῥή-χνο-μεν.
2. When the combination of consonants cannot commence a syllable, its first consonant belongs to the preceding syllable. E. g.
ἔρ-χον-ται, σάλ-πιγ-)ος, ἔ- ψαλ-λες.
3. A compound word is resolved into its com- ponent parts, if the first part ends with a consonant. But if the vowel of the first part has been cut off, the compound i is divided like a single word. E. g.
πρόσ-χα-ρος, ἐ-πρόσ-τα Se; εἴσ-α-ξα ἀ- -πέ-χω, κα-τά-γω, ὑ- -πάρ-ζχει.
4. When elision takes place, the last consonant of the preceding word is prefixed to the vowel of the following. E. g.
ἀλλ᾽ ἐγώ divided ἀλ-λε- γώ
> [7] > , ἀπ᾽ ὅλους “ ἀ-πό-λους.
δῷ 16-18.] i SYNIZESIS, 11 SYNIZESIS.
§ 16. Two successive syllables, of which the first ends in, and the second begins with, a vowel- sound, may be so rapidly uttered as to form but one syllable. This 1 is called synizesis or synecpho- nesis. E. g.
ἀγαπάεις May be pronounced ἀ ἀ-γα-πάεις, ah-gha-pice.
δ 17. When the first of. the syllables thus con- tracted ends in an J sound, the lollowing changes take place in pronunciation :
βι, δι, τ, ou, are pronounced bye ὅχι, ts oye βιάζομαι βγιά- Loucs, διάκος δχιάκος, ἰατρός γιατρὸς, ϑεριά ϑεργιά:
πι, ply Fu, τι, are pronounced πχε, φχι, ϑχι; τχι : πιάνω πχιάνω, ἀφιόνι ἀφχιόνι, ϑειάφι ϑχειάφι, φωτιά φωιχιά >
μι, 15: Ῥγοπουποθα wr: μιά pric, “Poros 2s
It must be observed here, that if the 7 has the accent before the synizesis, the tone is, placed on the next-syllable ; as ϑηρίο P7010, φωτία φωτιά, κρασίου κρασιοῦ, καρδίας καρδιᾶς.
Nore 1. When two I sounds are thus contracted, the first I is sometimes
omitted in writing, inasmuch as this omission does not affect the pronunciation of the word; as, Zyvevol, fro, πεντακόσοι, for Zuvevel, ἥλιοι, πεντακόσιοι.
Nore 2. The uneducated often drop the I in case of synizesis. Thus, they pronounce xeacd, ἄξου, σώπα; for κρασιά, ἄξιοῦ, σιώπα. ,
Norte 8. The preposition διά becomes γιά in the following manner : did, δγιώ, γιά, the 3 being dropped for the sake of. euphony,
Nore 4. Many place a curve or a straight line, or a pian under the syllables contracted by synizesis;_as, ἐκόπιασε, ἐκόπιασε, ΟΥ̓ ἐκόπιασε. These
marks may possibly be useful in spelling-books ; ; but in such as are intended for those who can read properly, they are needless, and moreover they disfigure the page. ' |
METATHESIS.
§ 18. Metathesis is an interchange of place between two letters (one of which is ers 1 or 9) in the same word. E. g.
γρωνίζω for γνωρίζω κουρταλῶ ““ xgoutatadc.
12 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. [δῇ 19-22.
ADDITIONS AND OMISSIONS OF LETTERS.
PROSTHESIS AND APH ERESIS.
§ 19. Prosthesis is prefixing one or more letters to a word. E. g. ἀπερνῶ, ἀπήγανος from περνῶ, πήγανον γαῖμα, γλάρος, γνέϑω. “ "αἷμα, λάρος, γήϑω σκόνη, σκύφτω κ΄ χόγις, κύπτω. ‘Nore. The uneducated often prefix-s to words, especially to such as are pre- ceded by the proclities σόν, φήν, τούς, was, σᾶς. E. ge roy ἐγλέπω for τὸν γλέπω μᾶς φωτίζει pas φωτίζει πολλὴν ἐγνωριμίαν “πολλὴν γνωριμίαν.. The fact, that this prefix usually occurs after the forms σόν, τήν, τούς, has led
some to suppose-that the ε belongs to these werner? and consequently to write φόνε, τήνε; τούσε, absurdly enough.
§ 20. Apheresis is the taking of a letter or letters -“* the beginning of a word. ἘΣ g. )
λίγος, μάτι ἴοτ΄ ὀλίγος, ὀμμάτι, ΄ς, “tt, ὄψος “ sig, ὅτι, γύψος φελῶ, pag: “ὠφελῶ, ὀψάρι-
EPENTHESIS AND SYNCOPE.
§ 2. Epenthesis is the vention of ἃ letter or letters in the middle of a word. E. g. ἀγέρας, ἄγουρος, μυΐγα, for ἃ ἀέρας, ἄωρος, μυῖα.
Nore. In ἔγνοια, Tigaryves, for ἔννοια, τύραννος, te tite must not be supposed that the first » is changed into yy, since only one ν is pronounced (8 4.3); and moreover, this insertion takes place in ἀγνάντια from ἐναντίον.
§ 22. Syncope is the omission of a letter or letters from the middle of a word. _E. g.
ἐγίνκα, λέω, ξέρω, for ἐγένηκα, λέγω, ξεύρω. Nore. The uneducated generally make the following omissions: 1. They drop » before 9, as ἀϑόγαλο, μαράϑηκα, for ἀνθόγαλον, μαράνϑηκα, 2. They drop y before μὲ or x, as ἀχέλι, πρᾶμα, κεχρί, μελαχρινός, συχωρῶ, from ἔγχελυς, πρᾶγμα, κέγχρος, μελαγχρινός, συγχωρῶ. 8. They drop the sound B before μι, as, γέμα, ϑᾶρια, for γεῦμα, ϑαῦμα.
᾿ δῷ 23—25.] CRASIS AND ELISION. 13 Ζ7
PARAGOGE AND APOCOPE.
§ 23. Paragoge is the adding one or more letters to the end of aword. E. g.
τίποτες; Aéteve, for τίποτε, λέτε.
Nore 1. The uneducated often annex ε to nouns and pronouns ending in » : \ as, βοδιῶνε, rove (enclitic), for βοδιῶν, ray.
Nore 2. In the time of Ptochoprodromus (A. Ὁ. 1150), the annexing of y to words ending in a-vowel was very common; as, πρᾶγμαν, Ἐφόρειν, ἐκτε- νίσϑην, for πράγμα, ἐφόρει, txreviodn. j
§ 24. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from the end of a word. E. g. κρασὶ, χωράφι for κρασίον, χωράφιον ξύλο, ἔχουμε, made “ξύλον, ἔχομεν, πάλιν.
Nore 1. The mass of the people generally drop » at the end of a word.
Nore 2. The proclitics τόν, τήν, before a noun, are by the ΡΝ ΤΟΥ changed into +2, τή, before β, γ, 3, 3, ¢, % Ar Mr »@ E. ge
7d βαρύ, τὴ γάτα for σὸν βαρύν, τὴν γάταν
7d διάβολο, τὴ Sea “ς κὸν διάβολον, τὴν ϑεάν
τὸ λόγο, τὴ Νεράϊδα σὸν λόγον, τὴν Νερά;
The adverbs δέν and μήν very often follow the analogy o
——— YIVERST CRASIS AND ELISION\&4 LIFOR™
§ 25. 1. When the proclitics τοῦ, τό, τά, δοῦ; σοῦ, τοῦ, ϑά,
_and ve, are followed by a vowel, a contraction (called crass)
takes place, which consists simply i in the omission of the weak- er vowel-sound.
In this case the strongest vowel-sound is a, next ov, next ο, next s, and the weakest of.all is ε..
When the same sound is repeated, it makes no difference which of the two is dropped. The omission of the first, how- ever, seems to be more natural. E. 8:
τὰ ᾽νόματα for τὰ ὀνόματα
τά ᾽χαμν “τὰ εἴχαμεν μοῦ ᾽πετε “ μοῦ εἴπετε τὸ ᾽βρισχα “τὸ εὕρισκα τό ᾽δὰμεν “Ὁ τὸ ἴδαμεν
Da ᾽λεγες “~ Da ἔλεγες
14 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. [$$ 26, 27.
τ᾽ ἀκούω for τὸ ἀκούω τ᾽ ὄνομα “τὸ ὄνομα τ᾽ οὐρανοῦ “τοῦ οὐρανοῦ.
2. ‘The same rule applies also to ἐγώ, ποῦ, and τέ, when they stand before εἶμαι, with this exception, that τέ does not lose ε. E. g. |
ἐγώ “aot for ἐγὼ εἶμαι
ποῦ να “ ποῦ εἶναι ἐ δ, «ὦ τί σαι “ τἰ εἶσαι.
Nore. There are those who, in imitation of the ancients, unite the proclitic to the word following, and place the coronis (’) over the contracted syllables ; as, τἀκούω, τῦνομα for σὸ ἀκούω, rd ὄνομα. ᾿
Others, most absurdly, write the accent and the breathing of the omitted syllable over the place which it once occupied ; as, νὰ "ya for νὰ εἶχα, τὸ “vga for τὸ ηὗρα. %
§ 26. The final vowel-sound in many cases may be dropped by eliston, when the next word begins with a vowel ; in which case the apostrophe (’) is put over the vacant place. E. g. |
ἀπ᾿ ἐδὼ for ἀπὸ ἐδῶ μ᾽ ἐχείνους “μὲ ἐκείνους xiv’ ἀηδονάχι “ xiva ἀηδονᾶκι.
Nore 1. The preposition ἀπό and a few other words may- drop their final vowel also before the accusative of the article; as, a9” σὸ νησί, ἀπ᾿ τὴν κόψη.
Also the verbal endings ¢, εἰν and » may be dropped before the accusative of the article > 88; pre +0 χιόνι, for ῥήξη.
Nore 2. The conjunction καί drops a: before E and I; as, x’ ἐμένα, κ᾽ εἴχετε. Before A, O, and OY, it may be changed into xi: as xi ἄκουσα, x} ὅλας, x) οὐράνια, pronounced by synizesis κιάκουσα, κιόλας, κισυράνια.
There are those who write x’ before all the vowels; but this changes the pro- nunciation of καί before a, ὁ, ov: thus, x’ ἀπεδῶ, x’ ὥρα, x’ οὐράνια, cannot be pronounced κιασεδῶ, κιώρα, κιουράνια, as they should be, but take the sound of καπεδῶ, κώρα, κουράνια, Which would be unintelligible to a Greek.
Others write x/, and some x: before a, σ, ov. They should remember, how- ever, that there is no elision in this ease, but simply a change of the sound E into the sound I, which does not affect the original accent of the word.
COMMUTATION OF LETTERS.
§ 27. In this section, the Romaic, as spoken by the mass of the people, is compared with the Greek.
§ 27.) COMMUTATION OF LETTERS. 15
1. A is often used for £ and O: as, ἀγγίζω, ἀϑάλη, τίποτα, for ἐγγίξω, rae τίποτε : ἀμόνω, ἀρμίδι, σήμερα, from ὄμνυμι, δρμιά, σήμερ
2. The mass of the people change avo and evo into ow and
ew respectively : that is, they change the sound @ before o into πὶ aS, χάψη, ἔκαψε, ἐθασίλεψε, for καῦσις, ἔχαυσε, ἐβασίλευσε.
3. When the diphthong εὖ loses ε by apheresis, υ is changed into 6 or φ, in order to preserve its original sound ; as, Bayyé- lio, βρίσκω, for εὐαγγέλιον, εὑρίσκω : φτηνός, φτιάνω, for pei κδλια εὐϑεῖα.
In ἀφέντης, for αὐθέντης, the v becomes φ after the omission of #.
4. In a few instances β is used for uw: as, ἀχηβάδα, βυζάνω, from χήμη, μυζάω.
5. In a few instances γ is used for B: as, γλέπω, γλέφαρο, "Eyownw, for βλέπω, βλέφαρον, Εὔριπος.
6. £ is often used for the sound 1, and sometimes for 0: as, 7έφνω, κερνῶ, κερί, μάγερας, for γύρνω, κιρνῶ, κηρί, μάγειρας :
Ἔλυμπος, ἐψές, from Ὄλυμπος, ὀψέ.
7. In a few instances ¢ is used for ὃ or a: as, ζαρχάδι, μαζί, from δορκάς, ὅμάδι (Ὁμαδος) : ζοχάρι, from σόγχος.
8. Very often the sound £ is changed into: as, πλιό, μηλιά, from πλέον, μηλέα : γριά, Ἑβριός, Σμυρνιός, for γραῖα, “EBgaios, Σμυρναῖος.
9. After σ, χ is generally changed into x: as, σκίζω, σκολειό, for σχίζω, σχολεῖον.
On the other hand, x before τ is generally changed into 7: as χτῶνι, σφιχτος, for UTEVL, σφικτός.
10. Sometimes 1 is used for » or g: as, , πλεμόνι, from πρεύ-- μων: ἀλέτρι, ἀχλάδα, πλώρη, from ὁ ἄροτρον, ἄχρας, πρώρα.
On the other hand, 9 is often used for 2: ἀδερφός, ἀρμέγω, “Ῥουφειᾶς, from ἀδελφός, ἀμέλγω, ᾿Δλφειός.
11. ™, ina few instances, is used for B: as, ἀχαμνός, Γιά-- κῶμος OF Διακωμῆς, James, ἔμνοστος, λάμνω, from χαῦνος, Ἰάκω- βος, εὔνοστος, ἐλαύνω.
12. o is often used for ε: as, Ὅβριός, ὄμορφος, ὄξω, from Ἑβραῖος, εὔμορφος, ἔξω.
16 LETTERS AND. SYLLABLES. [§ 27.
In three or four instances, after ε has been changed into o, an..is put before o in order to preserve the original sound of the consonant preceding: γιοφύρι, γιόμα, λιμιόνας, for γεφύρι, γέμα, λιμένας. 3 18. Very often ov is used for 0, and often for Lor : as, ἀπάνου, xouxxi, from ἀπάνω, κόκκος : ζουλεύω, πουρνάρι, for ζη- λεύω, πρινάρι : κουλλός, μουστάκι, from κυλλός, μύσταξ.
14. After μ, and in some other instances, z is used for β: as, ἀνασκουμπόνω, gunaive, from ἀνά κόμβος, ἐμβαίνω.
_ 15. The uneducated generally change 9 after o, @, or z, and also ὃ after », into τ: as, ἐσχέστηκα, ἐγράφτηκα, ἐλεύτερος, ἐτινάχτηκα, ἄντρας, for ἐσχίσϑηκα, ἐγράφϑηκα, ἐλεύϑερος (pro-